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Silver

Atomic Number: 47
Atomic Symbol: Ag
Atomic Weight: 107.8682
Electron Configuration: [Kr]4d105s1

Introduction

Silver (Ag; CAS Reg. No. 7440-22-4) is a relatively rare element occurring naturally in the earths crust as a soft, silver colored metal. It can exist in several oxidation states, with elemental silver and monovalent silver ion as the most common (ATSDR, 1990). Silver has a molecular weight of 107.868, a density of 10.5 g/cm3 at 20°C, and a melting point of 961.93°C (Weast et al., 1988). It is insoluble in water and alkalis, but is soluble in nitric acid, hot sulfuric acid, and potassium cyanide. Some of the more common silver compounds used in industry include nitrate, chloride, bromide, acetate, oxide, sulfate, and cyanide (Stokinger, 1981).

The principal uses of silver and silver compounds are in photographic materials, electroplating, electrical conductors, dental alloys, solder and brazing alloys, paints, jewelry, coins, and mirror production. Silver is also used for cloud seeding, as an antibacterial agent, and has been used for water purification. Silver may be discharged into surface waters by various industries and accumulated in soils from the fallout emissions from coal-fired power plants. The increasing cost of the metal, however, is spurring development of recovery practices (Nordberg and Gerhardsson, 1988; U.S. EPA, 1985).

Distribution

Silver has been detected in 50% of the samples of 29 human tissues, but at lower levels than other trace elements (U.S. EPA, 1985). Silver has no known physiological function in man, but its accumulation leads to argyria when the body burden is > 1 g (Stokinger, 1981). Granular deposits that contain silver have been observed in both pigmented and unpigmented skin of silver-exposed humans and animals. Once absorbed, orally-administered silver undergoes a first-pass effect through the liver, resulting in excretion into the bile, and thereby reducing the systemic distribution to tissues (ATSDR, 1990). Following ingestion of silver nitrate and silver chloride, silver was distributed widely in tissues of rats, with high concentrations seen in the tissues of the reticuloendothelial system (liver, spleen, bone marrow, lymph nodes, skin, and kidney) (Olcott, 1948). Silver was confined mainly to the liver of a worker who had accidentally inhaled radiolabeled silver metal; a biological half-life of 52 days was estimated (Newton and Holmes, 1966). Six hours after intratracheal administration of metallic silver to dogs, 96.9, 2.4, and 0.35% of the initially deposited dose was detected in the lungs, liver, and blood, respectively. The remaining silver was detected in the gall bladder and bile, intestines, and stomach. After 225 days, the distribution in tissue type was similar, with most of the silver found in the liver (Phalen and Morrow, 1976). Following intravenous injection of radioactively labeled silver nitrate, high levels of radioactivity were found in the liver and blood of rats 24 hours, and 1 and 2 weeks after treatment. The concentration of silver in the testes was about 5% of that in the liver. In the testes, deposits of silver were found in all cell types of spermatogenesis and in the lysosomes of the Sartoli cells (Ernst et al., 1991).

Currency

Silver, in the form of electrum (a gold-silver alloy), was coined to produce money in around 700 BC by the Lydians. Later, silver was refined and coined in its pure form. Many nations used silver as the basic unit of monetary value. In the modern world, silver bullion has the ISO currency code XAG. The name of the United Kingdom monetary unit "pound" (£) reflects the fact that it originally represented the value of one troy pound of sterling silver. In the 1800s, because of the large silver discoveries in the Americas and the fear by European Central bankers of the possibility of more silver than they suspected, many nations, like Great Britain and the United States, switched from a silver and gold standard to a gold standard of monetary value. During the 20th century, a slow transition to fiat currency occurred.

Jewelry and silverware

Jewelry and silverware are traditionally made from sterling silver (standard silver), an alloy of 92.5% silver with 7.5% copper. In the US, only an alloy consisting of at least 90.0% fine silver can be marketed as "silver" (thus frequently stamped 900). Sterling silver (stamped 925) is harder than pure silver, and has a lower melting point (893 °C) than either pure silver or pure copper. Britannia silver is an alternative hallmark-quality standard containing 95.8% silver, often used to make silver tableware and wrought plate. With the addition of germanium, the patented modified alloy Argentium Sterling Silver is formed, with improved properties including resistance to firescale.

Sterling silver jewelry is often plated with a thin coat of .999 fine silver to give the item a shiny finish. This process is called "flashing". Silver jewelry can also be plated with rhodium (for a bright, shiny look) or gold.

Silver is a constituent of almost all colored carat gold alloys and carat gold solders, giving the alloys paler color and greater hardness. White 9 carat gold contains 62.5% silver and 37.5% gold, while 22 carat gold contains up to 91.7 gold and 8.4% silver or copper or a mix of copper/silver. The more Copper added, the more "orange" the gold becomes. Rose Gold (stamped 375 or 9K (can be stamped 9c) was very popular in the UK in the late 19th Century.

Historically the training and guild organization of goldsmiths included silversmiths as well, and the two crafts remain largely overlapping. Unlike blacksmiths, silversmiths do not shape the metal while it is red-hot but instead, work it at room temperature with gentle and carefully placed hammer blows. The essence of silversmithing is to take a flat piece of metal and by means of different hammers, stakes and other simple tools, to transform it into a useful object.

While silversmiths specialize in, and principally work, silver, they also work with other metals such as gold, copper, steel, and brass. They make jewelry, silverware, armor, vases, and other artistic items. Because silver is such a malleable metal, silversmiths have a large range of choices with how they prefer to work the metal. Historically, silversmiths are mostly referred to as goldsmiths, which was usually the same guild. In the western Canadian silversmith tradition, guilds do not exist; however, mentoring through colleagues becomes a method of professional learning within a community of craftspeople.

Silver is much cheaper than gold, though still valuable, and so is very popular with jewelers who are just starting out and cannot afford to make pieces in gold, or as a practicing material for goldsmith apprentices. Silver has also become very fashionable, and is used frequently in more artistic jewelry pieces.

Traditionally silversmiths mostly made "silverware" (cutlery, table flatware, bowls, candlesticks and such). Only in more recent times has silversmithing become mainly work in jewelry, as much less solid silver tableware is now handmade.

Price

At a December 2010 price of about $28 USD per troy ounce, silver is about 1/50th the price of gold. The ratio has varied from 1/15 to 1/100 in the past 100 years. In 1980, the silver price rose to an all-time high of US$49.45 per troy ounce (T.O.) due to market manipulation of Nelson Bunker Hunt and Herbert Hunt.Some time after Silver Thursday the price was back to $10 per troy ounce. By December 2001 the price had dropped to US$4.15/T.O., and in May 2006 it had risen back as high as US$15.21/T.O. In March 2008, silver reached US$21.34/T.O. In December 2010, silver reached as high as US$30.The price of silver is important in Judaic Law. The lowest fiscal amount that a Jewish court, or Beth Din, can convene to adjudicate a case over is a shova pruta (value of a Babylonian pruta coin). This is fixed at 1/8 of a gram of pure, unrefined silver, at market price.